The original kibbutz communities were not actually created as an alternative to capitalism. But their creation did have an indirect relation with the spread of capitalism throughout Europe and the Western world.
In the late 19th century, Jewish people were scattered throughout the world, living in rather isolated communities amongst themselves. Still in exile from biblical Jerusalem, as a result of the Roman War of 60 AD, the Jewish people survived in communities that existed on the fringes of mainstream society. (Jewish religious, dietary and marital laws were the main factors that caused a separation between the Jewish and general communities.)
During the latter half of the nineteenth century, as capitalism grew throughout Europe, so did a sense of nationalism. Persons belonging to certain nationalities felt it altogether mandatory to set up governing bodies of the same national roots as to protect the common economic interests of that group. These common interests were mainly land and production of commodities, two main elements of capitalism. The Jews, already living a mostly separate existence, began to experience greater alienation and anti-Semitism from the surrounding nationalist advocates.
Both Jewish and Gentile intellectuals of the time felt it quite urgent that the Jewish people set up a nation of their own, along with its own governing body, as to protect their own interests.5 Thus sparked the Zionist movement—the Jewish physical and spiritual exodus back to Palestine, Eretz Israel.6 The end of nineteenth century saw thousands of Jewish immigrants flooding into their long lost homeland.
Palestine was in pretty bad shape around the turn of the twentieth century. Years of conquest had battered the once fruitful land. 36 empires had conquered Jerusalem and the surrounding region during the previous eons. What was once the center of the spiritual world remained a dusty shamble of ruins and desert. The then current 100,000 inhabitants, mostly Palestinian farmers, were quite offset by vast immigration of the Jewish Zionists' quest to rebuild a nation. Little were the Arab farmers aware of the controversial future that lay ahead.
Jewish pioneers were determined to reestablish themselves in the Land of Israel. However, returning was a tough feat for these settlers. The land was sparse and as most settlers were craftsman or religious folk in their previous settings, they possessed little knowledge of desert survival. To ensure the new Jewish occupation in Palestine, Eretz Israel, a master plan was invoked and practiced to its utmost theoretical design. The blueprints of this plan called for the creation of sustainable, communal farming settlement which would support the needs of all who lived and worked within. These communities were coined “kibbutzim.” From then on, the kibbutz outposts would symbolize Jewish control of the land. The idea was that those who worked the land had special rights to the land and would therefore protect it, as need be. The early Zionist goal, practiced through creation of the kibbutz, was to make the desert bloom, to bring life and prosperity back to the land, whilst erecting a Jewish homeland.
In 1910, the first kibbutz was established. Several followed in the next years. As time passed, more immigrants came to Israel, mostly all first passing through the kibbutzim. As Israel’s population grew, so did the number of kibbutzim. In 1948, with UN backing, Israel declared itself a nation. A socialist government was set up which subsidized and furthered the growth of kibbutz communities.
Traditionally, the kibbutzim of Israel promoted a lifestyle based on complete shared ownership of all property, production of commodities, and profits.7 Everyone owned everything, or no one owned anything—depending on how you looked at it. The socialist ethic and communal lifestyle practiced on the kibbutzim helped to created strong community ties amongst its members. People lived quite minimally and simply. Food was served and eaten together, children were raised together, and people worked side by side creating a community. One could live with the peace of mind knowing that their work directly sustained and nurtured them. The fruits of labor were enjoyed by all who lived and worked on the kibbutz.
Many scholars have categorized the kibbutz as the closest thing to utopia, the perfect society. In libraries, books written about the kibbutz were found next to those philosophizing about utopia. However, life did not always progress smoothly for the kibbutz inhabitants and disaster often occurred. Writings from early kibbutz farms often dictated the grimmest of living situations. Starvation, lack of supplies, unpredictable weather conditions, bankruptcy, and war often posed great obstacles for kibbutz survival. The early kibbutz inhabitants were so dedicated to the physical and mental aspects of their lifestyles that they persevered, relying on the support of the community in times of need, and giving to it in times of prosperity. It is this dynamic of community that allowed for the survival of the kibbutz.
The last two decades have brought even more challenges and threats to the kibbutz movement. External and internal economic pressures and increased Western influences have encouraged many kibbutzim to ignore their traditional ideologies and undergo major restructuring.
Agriculture was once the predominant source of income for the kibbutz. From the turn of the twentieth century until 1948, the kibbutzim were the main suppliers of produce for Eretz Israel’s increasing population. After the Israeli War of Independence in 1948, much of the country’s agriculture infrastructure was destroyed. In addition, Israel experienced a population explosion as many Jews left the Diaspora and returned to the new Jewish state.8 Food was in great demand, and the Israeli government, “having realized that its first task was to feed the population, reciprocated it efforts to expand output by generous assistance to agriculture.” 9 As a result, agricultural production on kibbutz boomed and the kibbutz experienced large economical gains.
In the 1960’s, immigration in Israel fell sharply. In addition, technological improvements increased the amount of food that could be made with the same amount of money and labor. There became a surplus of produce which equated to a decrease in the price of food. The kibbutzim, relying on agriculture as its means of sustenance, began to lose money. The kibbutzim needed to come up with other sources of income for survival. Encouraged by government financial support, many kibbutzim disregarded their traditional farming ethic and introduced industry sectors as to supplement their agriculture revenues. Chemical plants, shoe factories, and dairy farms began replacing agriculture as a means of income for the kibbutz. Many kibbutzim were successful with their new industrial ventures and a few made a lot of money.
In the late 1970’s, the Israeli government, backed by popular vote, changed its political affiliation. The new government adopted a more capitalist agenda, counteracting its previous socialist stance. International trade barriers were eased, and capitalism invaded the land of Israel, bringing with a new array of luxury goods and boasting financial possibilities. Business grew in Tel Aviv, Haifa, and other major cities throughout Israel, creating increased economic growth for the country.
The kibbutzim of Israel, once promoted and supported by the Israeli government was now viewed as a neutral entity. The new Israeli government felt that nostalgia and sentiment alone were not enough to keep the kibbutz alive. If they were to survive, the kibbutz would need to make enough money to do so. This new view proved disastrous for the kibbutzim, as many were in dire need of government assistance.
The financial climate grew sour on many kibbutzim as they could not come up with enough money to sustain their needs. In order to survive, many kibbutzim took out loans and fell in debt. As economic situations worsened, the kibbutz movement began to lose popularity amongst the Israeli public and many kibbutz members became skeptical of their communities. To avoid member dropout, many kibbutz began to allow for privatization of money and goods for its members.
Prior to privatization, kibbutz members basically possessed all the same things, mainly basic accommodations and minimal personal money. The kibbutz provided shared items such as cars, computers, and recreation areas. When persons moved to kibbutz, theoretically, they gave all previously earned personal wealth to the kibbutz general account. Privatization allowed for kibbutz members to keep private bank accounts and hold personal money. In addition, after privatization, kibbutz members could keep money they had earned prior to coming on kibbutz. Kibbutz members could also receive monetary gifts from outside relatives and friends. This new access of money allowed some kibbutz members to “import" and personally own items such as cars, stereo equipment, compact disks, and other items from the West.
A problem arose, though, as kibbutznics began to take advantage of newly acquired private bank accounts. Some kibbutz members' outside families were rich, and gave them generous monetary gifts. These members could afford to buy many items not supplied by the kibbutz, such as new clothes and better furniture. Other kibbutz members did not have outside wealth and could not receive financial gift as their families could not afford it. Privatization on kibbutz therefore created two types of people, divided on the basis of their economic status: the “haves” and the “have nots.” This dimorphism of material status created tensions amongst members residing on the same kibbutz and weakened community ties.
Many kibbutzim, usually those less affluent, resist economic privatization, and remain rather communal. As there now exists several approaches to kibbutz lifestyles, the kibbutz movement has divided. Currently there are several movements stemming from the original movement. Affiliation with a kibbutz movement dictates the kibbutz lifestyle. The richer, more private kibbutzim belong to one movement, and the poorer kibbutz belong to another. In addition, the ultra-orthodox kibbutzim have started their own movements.
My early studies of the kibbutz became the catalyst to my going and living on a kibbutz. I was eager to study a modern day kibbutz. With the assistance of the Jewish Federation of the East Bay and the Kibbutz Program Center, I was able to find a kibbutz that was interested in letting me live, work and study it. Prior to my departure, I had little knowledge of the kibbutz I was going to. I did not know if it were a rich kibbutz or a poor kibbutz, nor how strict it was in adhering to traditional kibbutz values.
A kibbutznic once told me, “The kibbutz are like Volkswagens, no two are alike.” This quote appeared true, as their were so many variables involved in the make up of a kibbutz. Included in this were: geographic location, population size, range of ages, culture of founding group, religious attributes, culture of new coming members, affiliation with kibbutz movement, youth movement ties, degree of industrialization, wealth, and ideological emphasis. As this project was a study of one community, and was not an analysis of all the kibbutz communities in Israel, much of the information within only applied to the single kibbutz that I studied.
So came the summer months and I flew to Israel and began my study of the kibbutz. I soon found answers to my many questions, and I ultimately found the inspirations to return to the university and complete this project.
Next Chapter: The coolbreeze came on Tuesday...
5. A Gentile is any non-Jew. This term is not derogatory.
6. Palestine was the official name of the land prior to the statehood of Israel in 1948. Before 1948 Jewish settlers and other Zionists referred to the land as Eretz Israel, or the Land of Israel. I will refer to pre-1948 Israel as Palestine or Eretz Israel interchangeably.
7. A commodity is any item produced for selling or any time that has an exchange value. “A commodity is, in the first place, an object outside us, a thing that by its properties satisfies human wants of some sort or another." -Karl Marx, Capital, 1850. Volume 1, paragraph 16.
8. The Diaspora is the settling of scattered colonies of Jews, or any person of Jewish decent, outside of the Israel.
9. Yehuda Don, Industrialization of a Rural Collective. Avebury, 1975. Pg. 12.